Between 1066, when the De Laci (or De Lacy) patriarch had come to the country with William the Conqueror, and 1311, when the last heir of the family died, the entire region under which we walked had been the estate of the De Lacis. The region was conducive to sheep farming and many of their tenants and burgesses raised sheep. In the first recorded use of the Bradford Beck to power wool-processing machinery, the De Lacis built a water-powered fulling mill, of which their many sheep-herding tenants and burgesses were permitted free use. Fulling was a difficult process of agitating and beating wool cloth to both lock the fibers together and to clean them; it was a vital finishing step for cloth woven or knitted from yarn, and was even more important in the process of making more primitive felted cloth.
The labor-saving water mill was the first step in the centralization of the region’s wool productions. Along with a mill for grinding grain (also built by the De Lacis, and powered by a waterwheel on the Beck), it was the focal point for a slow agglomeration of sheep-farmers and others into a village that would eventually grow into the world’s largest center for processing wool. By the early 16th century, Bradford had already begun to grow on the basis of its wool and cloth production. “[It is] a pretty, quick, market town….It standeth much by clothing,” the writer John Leland wrote in his Itinerary after a visit in 1536.
In many respects, Bradford was ideally located in terms of its natural resources. The Bradford Beck, though the largest, was not the only stream serving the town; there were more than a dozen tributaries that fed into it, ranging in size from the large Bowling Beck to small streams known as “sykes.” As in Nottingham, this plethora of watercourses assisted in irrigation and in raising livestock, and because they were generally fast-flowing, with large vertical drops from the surrounding hills, these streams also easily served to power watermills. The many streams also helped in washing wool, a process that required constantly moving water to carry away the large deposits of grease, lanolin, and dirt that accumulated on sheep. More importantly, the water of the region was particularly soft, which was ideal for washing wool. Along with these natural advantages, “the persevering industry of the inhabitants, and the abundant supplies of water-power, of coal, and of building stone….maintained Bradford in its position as one of the great manufacturing towns of West Riding,” wrote the historian Thomas Baines about 17th- and early 18th-century Bradford.
However, Bradford lacked a navigable watercourse. The Beck was rapid but shallow, despite its many tributaries. Leeds was less than ten miles away from Bradford, but it was connected to the coast by the large River Aire, and this was probably a factor in the huge success of its cloth market—described by Daniel Defoe in 1724 as “a Prodigy of its Kind, and perhaps not to be equaled in the World.”
Doubtless inspired by the success of its neighbor, Bradford began two ambitious projects in the 1770s: the construction of Piece Hall, where weavers and merchants could buy and sell “pieces” of finished cloth, and the Bradford Canal, which would connect the city to the River Aire and to the Liverpool & Leeds Canal. Piece Hall, finished in 1773, was one of the first dedicated marketplace buildings of its kind in the country, though soon similar venues would be built in many other cities as well. Even more important was the Bradford Canal, completed in 1774. It ran four miles to the Aire, and was probably the most vital infrastructure investment that Bradford could have made for its future. Via the Aire, the canal connected to the Humber Estuary on the east coast, and in 1816, the completion of the Leeds & Liverpool Canal connected it with the Liverpool’s port on the west coast as well. The water of the Bradford Beck was diverted into the canal to fill it, and the cheap waterborne shipping the canal provided—on Bradford Beck water—was in a large part what paved the way for the explosion of population and industry over the next seventy-five years.
BRADFORD: STEAM AND SEWAGE
Where we had first entered the culvert, it had been constructed of large stone blocks, with a flat floor and a rounded stone arch at the top. The shape and composition of the tunnel varied widely as we waded along, however, ranging from rounded brick conduits that looked like Victorian-era sewers to stone-walled, flat-ceilinged sections that had clearly been open channels before being covered. In some areas the stream ran through foundations of old buildings, which may or may not have still existed on the surface. Shafts of sunlight found us once or twice; some of the older industrial buildings had been built over the Beck before it was completely covered, and when one of them was torn down and replaced with a smaller building, small gaps were left. Side channels connected to the main tunnel occasionally, either outlets for anonymous, culverted tributary streams, or overflow outfalls for the sewer system. Though I couldn’t identify it, I knew that one of the inflowing channels we saw was the Goit, a now-culverted bypass channel that served as a millrace for watermills from as early as the 14th century well into the 19th.
Steam power had begun to replace waterpower in Bradford in 1798, when the first factory powered by a steam engine was set up on Edmund Street, just a few hundred feet south of where we walked through the tunnel. (The first attempt to bring in steam power for a mill had been in 1793, but a conservative group of merchants had brought suit against the mill owner to block the installation of the engine, worrying that “the smoke from the engine furnace would be a nuisance.” ) At the time there was still only limited mechanization in the wool industry; fulling was done with water or steam-powered machinery, of course, but the 1801 the census of Bradford recorded only one spinning mill in operation—most was still done by hand.
By 1841, however, there were thirty-eight worsted spinning mills in Bradford itself, seventy in the region, and an incredible two-thirds of all England’s wool was being processed in or near the city. By 1850 the city had 129 mills—now running on steam—employing thousands of workers, and drawing labor from throughout Europe. The result was an eight-fold increase over the 1801 population in a period of just fifty years, with over 100,000 people in the city by mid-century; this would double again to over 200,000 by the end of the century.
As with other industrial boom-towns, the surge in population turned the town’s streets and rivers into open sewers. As early as 1837, a sanitary surveyor declared Bradford to be “the most filthy town I visited," full of “open cesspits, pig styes and slaughterhouses and effluent-laden watercourses.” The greasy wastes from the wool industry were a particular problem, and the nature of the Beck changed almost overnight. Residents of the town could still remember catching trout in a sparkling stream when they’d been boys, but by 1840 both the Beck and the Aire had been turned into “the receptacles of all kinds of filth, and tippings, and the trout, graylings, eels and tench, were exterminated.”
By the 1850s, it was even worse. “This brook at present runs the colour of ink,” declared a reporter for London’s Morning Chronicle about the Beck. The same waters fed the Bradford Canal, and the industrial pollution actually made the waterway flammable. Local boys would light it on fire for fun, and according to testimony at an 1867 commission on river pollution, the flames would rise six feet and would run along the water “for many yards, like a will-o-the-wisp.” Canal boats nearby would be “so enveloped in flame as to frighten persons on board.”
Even more dangerous than fire or industrial pollution was disease. “[L]ike a filthy open sewer, [the canal] runs along the border of the town, breathing pestilence and death,” testified another resident in 1866. This was hardly an exaggeration. As happened with all cities of the era whose expanded population created irredeemably unsanitary conditions, cholera, typhoid, and other diseases were spread through tainted water. Significant cholera epidemics had already occurred in 1832, 1849, 1853, 1854 and 1856. Partly because of diseases, the life expectancy was the lowest in the region, with an average of only about eighteen years. Less than one-third of the children of textile workers would live past the age of fifteen.
In 1867, the city prohibited the use of Bradford Beck water in the canal, which soon ran dry. The Beck’s only real utility to the town was now as a main sewer, and in that capacity the stream served as the depository for all of the town’s waste. Even when sewer pipes had first been installed in Bradford, in the mid-19th century, they merely dumped the (untreated) sewage directly into the Beck, to the deep unhappiness of downstream landowners on both the Beck and the Aire. In 1869 one of these landowners, a William Stansfield of Esholt Hall, obtained an injunction mandating that Bradford treat its sewage before releasing it into the river. The first treatment plant proved to be a failure as the grease from the wool mills made the sewage exceptionally difficult to treat, but continued injunctions forced the city to continue investing in treatment facilities. Ironically, in 1899, the city took over William Stansfield’s Esholt estate on the Aire for a new treatment plant, and the Esholt Sewage Works continues to be Bradford’s main treatment plant today. In the 1920s, the three-mile Esholt Sewage Disposal tunnel was dug to directly connect the city’s sewer system to the Esholt works, and the Bradford Beck was finally freed of its sewerage burden. By this time, however, the river had already been completely culverted through the center of town, and so few fully appreciated the change that had taken place.
Steam power had begun to replace waterpower in Bradford in 1798, when the first factory powered by a steam engine was set up on Edmund Street, just a few hundred feet south of where we walked through the tunnel. (The first attempt to bring in steam power for a mill had been in 1793, but a conservative group of merchants had brought suit against the mill owner to block the installation of the engine, worrying that “the smoke from the engine furnace would be a nuisance.” ) At the time there was still only limited mechanization in the wool industry; fulling was done with water or steam-powered machinery, of course, but the 1801 the census of Bradford recorded only one spinning mill in operation—most was still done by hand.
By 1841, however, there were thirty-eight worsted spinning mills in Bradford itself, seventy in the region, and an incredible two-thirds of all England’s wool was being processed in or near the city. By 1850 the city had 129 mills—now running on steam—employing thousands of workers, and drawing labor from throughout Europe. The result was an eight-fold increase over the 1801 population in a period of just fifty years, with over 100,000 people in the city by mid-century; this would double again to over 200,000 by the end of the century.
As with other industrial boom-towns, the surge in population turned the town’s streets and rivers into open sewers. As early as 1837, a sanitary surveyor declared Bradford to be “the most filthy town I visited," full of “open cesspits, pig styes and slaughterhouses and effluent-laden watercourses.” The greasy wastes from the wool industry were a particular problem, and the nature of the Beck changed almost overnight. Residents of the town could still remember catching trout in a sparkling stream when they’d been boys, but by 1840 both the Beck and the Aire had been turned into “the receptacles of all kinds of filth, and tippings, and the trout, graylings, eels and tench, were exterminated.”
By the 1850s, it was even worse. “This brook at present runs the colour of ink,” declared a reporter for London’s Morning Chronicle about the Beck. The same waters fed the Bradford Canal, and the industrial pollution actually made the waterway flammable. Local boys would light it on fire for fun, and according to testimony at an 1867 commission on river pollution, the flames would rise six feet and would run along the water “for many yards, like a will-o-the-wisp.” Canal boats nearby would be “so enveloped in flame as to frighten persons on board.”
Even more dangerous than fire or industrial pollution was disease. “[L]ike a filthy open sewer, [the canal] runs along the border of the town, breathing pestilence and death,” testified another resident in 1866. This was hardly an exaggeration. As happened with all cities of the era whose expanded population created irredeemably unsanitary conditions, cholera, typhoid, and other diseases were spread through tainted water. Significant cholera epidemics had already occurred in 1832, 1849, 1853, 1854 and 1856. Partly because of diseases, the life expectancy was the lowest in the region, with an average of only about eighteen years. Less than one-third of the children of textile workers would live past the age of fifteen.
In 1867, the city prohibited the use of Bradford Beck water in the canal, which soon ran dry. The Beck’s only real utility to the town was now as a main sewer, and in that capacity the stream served as the depository for all of the town’s waste. Even when sewer pipes had first been installed in Bradford, in the mid-19th century, they merely dumped the (untreated) sewage directly into the Beck, to the deep unhappiness of downstream landowners on both the Beck and the Aire. In 1869 one of these landowners, a William Stansfield of Esholt Hall, obtained an injunction mandating that Bradford treat its sewage before releasing it into the river. The first treatment plant proved to be a failure as the grease from the wool mills made the sewage exceptionally difficult to treat, but continued injunctions forced the city to continue investing in treatment facilities. Ironically, in 1899, the city took over William Stansfield’s Esholt estate on the Aire for a new treatment plant, and the Esholt Sewage Works continues to be Bradford’s main treatment plant today. In the 1920s, the three-mile Esholt Sewage Disposal tunnel was dug to directly connect the city’s sewer system to the Esholt works, and the Bradford Beck was finally freed of its sewerage burden. By this time, however, the river had already been completely culverted through the center of town, and so few fully appreciated the change that had taken place.
BRADFORD: AT THE END AND THE BEGINNING
By now, the tunnel we had come through had varied from all the way from 20th-century concrete with rusted steel girders supporting brick-arch roofs to sections that seemed drawn from the Neolithic era, with rough blocks forming the side walls and huge rectangular slabs of quarried stone stretching ten feet across from wall to wall to form the top of the culvert. We knew we were under Centenary Square at the heart of Bradford, however, when we came out into a magnificent chamber of stone-work arches. It looked like the crypt of a remarkably beautiful cathedral, though in fact the Bradford Cathedral was still a short distance ahead. Instead, we were almost directly under Bradford’s ornate Victorian-era City Hall. In addition the beautiful construction of this underground room—one of the first sections to be covered in the late 19th century—another landmark that showed our location was the confluence of our tunnel with another that contained an almost equally powerful flow of water. This was the Bowling Beck, the Bradford Beck’s largest tributary.
The combined flow of water, we quickly realized, was powerful enough that it could actually move us slowly along even when we stood still, with both boots planted; there was not enough traction on the slippery floor to resist the push of the current. This made our wading more difficult, and when we reached a wider section we decided to rest along the raised stone path at the side. Small, fibrous tree roots had infiltrated through the rotten mortar between stones, and stalactite formations showed the age of the tunnel. We were approximately next Bradford Cathedral, the oldest building in Bradford. This meant that we were also at Bradford’s origin, as the “broad ford” that gave both the city and the river their names is generally agreed to have been just at the spot where the Beck passes the Cathedral. Somewhere very close to where we sat was the ancient site of the crossing, the original center of Bradford.
Parts of the Cathedral date back to the 15th century, when it was still the Parish Church of St. Peter, and the 15th century church replaced another from the 14th century or before. Fragments of Saxon crosses have been found on the same site, meaning that some sort of settlement had existed here since at least the 10th century, and probably much earlier than that.
I looked at the water flowing over my boots. For more than a millennium, people had been right here with this same flow of water, dipping their feet in it, drinking from it, fouling it with waste, wading through it, fishing in it, washing in it.
In the light of my headlamp, it still sparkled.
The combined flow of water, we quickly realized, was powerful enough that it could actually move us slowly along even when we stood still, with both boots planted; there was not enough traction on the slippery floor to resist the push of the current. This made our wading more difficult, and when we reached a wider section we decided to rest along the raised stone path at the side. Small, fibrous tree roots had infiltrated through the rotten mortar between stones, and stalactite formations showed the age of the tunnel. We were approximately next Bradford Cathedral, the oldest building in Bradford. This meant that we were also at Bradford’s origin, as the “broad ford” that gave both the city and the river their names is generally agreed to have been just at the spot where the Beck passes the Cathedral. Somewhere very close to where we sat was the ancient site of the crossing, the original center of Bradford.
Parts of the Cathedral date back to the 15th century, when it was still the Parish Church of St. Peter, and the 15th century church replaced another from the 14th century or before. Fragments of Saxon crosses have been found on the same site, meaning that some sort of settlement had existed here since at least the 10th century, and probably much earlier than that.
I looked at the water flowing over my boots. For more than a millennium, people had been right here with this same flow of water, dipping their feet in it, drinking from it, fouling it with waste, wading through it, fishing in it, washing in it.
In the light of my headlamp, it still sparkled.
SOURCES: SHEFFIELD
“Children’s Employment Commission on the Metal Manufactures of the Sheffield District.” 1862. Online at: http://youle.info/history/fh_material/childrens_employment_1862.txt
“What are the best means of preventing the spread of Contagious Disease?” Statements of Dr Stevenson Macadam, Edinburgh, and Dr J.C. Hall, Sheffield. Report of the proceedings of the "Conference on Temperance Legislation, London, 1886.” Edited by George Woodyatt Hastings, Andrew Edgar, Charles Wager Ryalls, Edwin Pears. Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science.
Baines, Edward. History, Directory & Gazeteer, of the County of York. Published 1822; sold by Hurst and Robinson.
Baines, Thomas. Yorkshire, Past and Present. 1877.
BBC News. Online at http://news.bbc.co.uk. Articles: “Three dead following flood chaos,” June 26 2007; “Two die in Sheffield flood chaos,” June 25, 2007
BarlowGeneology.com. “The Barlow Knife.” Online at http://www.barlowgenealogy.com/Edson/barlowknife.html
Chaucer, Geoffrey. Canterbury Tales: Reeve’s Tale. Excerpt:
Ay by his belt he baar a long panade,
And of a swerd ful trenchant was the blade.
A joly poppere baar he in his pouche;
Ther was no man, for peril, dorste hym touche.
A Sheffeld thwitel baar he in his hose.
Children’s Employment Commission on the Metal Manufactures of the Sheffield District, 1862, referenced at http://youle.info/history/fh_material/childrens_employment_1862.txt
Defoe, Daniel. A tour thro' the whole island of Great Britain, divided into circuits or journies (London, 1726), Letter 8, Part 3: South and West Yorkshire.
Department Town & Regional Planning research group of the Sheffield Centre for Geographic Information and Spatial Analysis (SCGISA), at the University of Sheffield. “The Changing Face of Sheffield.” Accessed online at http://www.shef.ac.uk/~scgisa/
Domesday Book, 1086. The full reference to Sheffield (translated): [At] Attercliffe and Sheffield, two manors, Sweyn had five carucates of land [approximately 120 acres]. There may have been about three ploughs [=about 24 oxen, or three teams of 8]. This land is said to have been the inland demesne [domain] of the manor of Hallam.
Great Britain Historical GIS Project.”Sheffield District: Total Population.” Part of A Vision of Britain Through Time. Online at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield#Population_change
Hunter, Joseph. Hallamshire. The History and Topography of the Parish of Sheffield in the County of York, Chapter III. Published by Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor, and Jones. London 1819. Online at http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Hallamshire._The_History_and_Topography_of_the_Parish_of_Sheffield_in_the_County_of_York
Illustrated London News. “BURSTING OF THE BRADFIELD RESERVOIR, NEAR SHEFFIELD. — TWO HUNDRED LIVES LOST.” Saturday, March 19, 1864, (No. 1250, Vol. XLIV), online at http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~mossvalley/mv2/sheffield-flood.html
Illustrated London News. “THE SHEFFIELD CALAMITY.” Saturday, March 19, 1864, (No. 1250, Vol. XLIV), online at http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~mossvalley/mv2/sheffield-flood.html
Lee, Chris. “The Porter Brook Home Page: Old Maps of the Porter Brook.” Online at: http://homepages.nildram.co.uk/~leebase/Pages/Old%20Maps.htm
Map: 1890 OS Map, accessed through Sheffield Urban Contextual Databank (SUCoD), The University of Sheffield, School of Architecture, 2001-2003; http://sucod.shef.ac.uk/
Map: Gosling, “A Plan of Sheffield,” 1736
Orwell, George. Diary, dated March 5 1936. Online at http://www.chrishobbs.com/orwellsheffield1936.htm
Palmer, Henry J. “Cutlery and Cutlers at Sheffield.” The English Illustrated Magazine, August 1884
Pollard, S. The History of Labour in Sheffield. Liverpool, Liverpool University Press, 1959. P. 53. Chapter 2 online at: http://youle.info/history/Pollard/Chapter_2.html
Scott, Walter. Ivanhoe: A Romance. Reprinted by Signet Classic, 2001.
Stainton, J.H. The Making of Sheffield, 1865-1914.
White, William. History, gazetteer, and directory, of the west-riding of Yorkshire. 1837.
Williamson, William R. “BOWIE KNIFE.” The Handbook of Texas Online. Online at: http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/BB/lnb1.html
“What are the best means of preventing the spread of Contagious Disease?” Statements of Dr Stevenson Macadam, Edinburgh, and Dr J.C. Hall, Sheffield. Report of the proceedings of the "Conference on Temperance Legislation, London, 1886.” Edited by George Woodyatt Hastings, Andrew Edgar, Charles Wager Ryalls, Edwin Pears. Transactions of the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science.
Baines, Edward. History, Directory & Gazeteer, of the County of York. Published 1822; sold by Hurst and Robinson.
Baines, Thomas. Yorkshire, Past and Present. 1877.
BBC News. Online at http://news.bbc.co.uk. Articles: “Three dead following flood chaos,” June 26 2007; “Two die in Sheffield flood chaos,” June 25, 2007
BarlowGeneology.com. “The Barlow Knife.” Online at http://www.barlowgenealogy.com/Edson/barlowknife.html
Chaucer, Geoffrey. Canterbury Tales: Reeve’s Tale. Excerpt:
Ay by his belt he baar a long panade,
And of a swerd ful trenchant was the blade.
A joly poppere baar he in his pouche;
Ther was no man, for peril, dorste hym touche.
A Sheffeld thwitel baar he in his hose.
Children’s Employment Commission on the Metal Manufactures of the Sheffield District, 1862, referenced at http://youle.info/history/fh_material/childrens_employment_1862.txt
Defoe, Daniel. A tour thro' the whole island of Great Britain, divided into circuits or journies (London, 1726), Letter 8, Part 3: South and West Yorkshire.
Department Town & Regional Planning research group of the Sheffield Centre for Geographic Information and Spatial Analysis (SCGISA), at the University of Sheffield. “The Changing Face of Sheffield.” Accessed online at http://www.shef.ac.uk/~scgisa/
Domesday Book, 1086. The full reference to Sheffield (translated): [At] Attercliffe and Sheffield, two manors, Sweyn had five carucates of land [approximately 120 acres]. There may have been about three ploughs [=about 24 oxen, or three teams of 8]. This land is said to have been the inland demesne [domain] of the manor of Hallam.
Great Britain Historical GIS Project.”Sheffield District: Total Population.” Part of A Vision of Britain Through Time. Online at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield#Population_change
Hunter, Joseph. Hallamshire. The History and Topography of the Parish of Sheffield in the County of York, Chapter III. Published by Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor, and Jones. London 1819. Online at http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Hallamshire._The_History_and_Topography_of_the_Parish_of_Sheffield_in_the_County_of_York
Illustrated London News. “BURSTING OF THE BRADFIELD RESERVOIR, NEAR SHEFFIELD. — TWO HUNDRED LIVES LOST.” Saturday, March 19, 1864, (No. 1250, Vol. XLIV), online at http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~mossvalley/mv2/sheffield-flood.html
Illustrated London News. “THE SHEFFIELD CALAMITY.” Saturday, March 19, 1864, (No. 1250, Vol. XLIV), online at http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~mossvalley/mv2/sheffield-flood.html
Lee, Chris. “The Porter Brook Home Page: Old Maps of the Porter Brook.” Online at: http://homepages.nildram.co.uk/~leebase/Pages/Old%20Maps.htm
Map: 1890 OS Map, accessed through Sheffield Urban Contextual Databank (SUCoD), The University of Sheffield, School of Architecture, 2001-2003; http://sucod.shef.ac.uk/
Map: Gosling, “A Plan of Sheffield,” 1736
Orwell, George. Diary, dated March 5 1936. Online at http://www.chrishobbs.com/orwellsheffield1936.htm
Palmer, Henry J. “Cutlery and Cutlers at Sheffield.” The English Illustrated Magazine, August 1884
Pollard, S. The History of Labour in Sheffield. Liverpool, Liverpool University Press, 1959. P. 53. Chapter 2 online at: http://youle.info/history/Pollard/Chapter_2.html
Scott, Walter. Ivanhoe: A Romance. Reprinted by Signet Classic, 2001.
Stainton, J.H. The Making of Sheffield, 1865-1914.
White, William. History, gazetteer, and directory, of the west-riding of Yorkshire. 1837.
Williamson, William R. “BOWIE KNIFE.” The Handbook of Texas Online. Online at: http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/BB/lnb1.html
SOURCES: NOTTINGHAM
“Nottingham Chamberlain’s Account Book, listing the costs, repairs, and expenses made by John Coste and John Howett, chamberlains of the town of Nottingham, from 29 September 1485 to the same date in 1486.” Nottinghamshire Archives. Transcription in: Stevenson, W.H., ed. Records of the Borough of Nottingham. London and Nottingham, 1883, vol. 3. (Original language was Middle English; translation available at http://www.trytel.com/~tristan/towns/florilegium/community/cmfabr11.html)
Aldous, R.C., Assoc. M.Inst. C.E., Deputy City Engineer, Nottingham. “Nottingham Main Drainage Works.” In The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, 1936; 57; 100; DOI: 10.1177/146642403605700206; online at http://rsh.sagepub.com.
Deering, Charles. Nottinghamia Vetus Et Nova, or an Historical Account of the Ancient and Present State of the Town of Nottingham. Printed by and for G. Ayscough & T. Willington, Nottingham, 1751.
Diocesan Advisory Committee for the Care of Churches, Diocese of Southwell & Nottingham. “Church History Project Database: Nottingham St. Catherine.” Online at http://southwellchurches.nottingham.ac.uk/n10/hhistory.html
Aldous, R.C., Assoc. M.Inst. C.E., Deputy City Engineer, Nottingham. “Nottingham Main Drainage Works.” In The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, 1936; 57; 100; DOI: 10.1177/146642403605700206; online at http://rsh.sagepub.com.
Deering, Charles. Nottinghamia Vetus Et Nova, or an Historical Account of the Ancient and Present State of the Town of Nottingham. Printed by and for G. Ayscough & T. Willington, Nottingham, 1751.
Diocesan Advisory Committee for the Care of Churches, Diocese of Southwell & Nottingham. “Church History Project Database: Nottingham St. Catherine.” Online at http://southwellchurches.nottingham.ac.uk/n10/hhistory.html
SOURCES: BRADFORD
SOURCES: BRADFORD
"Address before the National association of wool manufacturers, at the first annual meeting in Philadelphia, Sept. 6, 1865,” by John L Hayes, Secretary. Published by John Wilson and Sons, Cambridge, MA, 1865. Online at http://www.archive.org/stream/addressbeforenat00hayeiala/addressbeforenat00hayeiala_djvu.txt
“Inquisition Post Mortem, on the death of Henry De Laci the last Earl of Lincoln, 1311, 5th Edward II” reproduced in: Baines, Thomas. Yorkshire, Past and Present. 1877, Vol 2. P. 251
“Sanitary Report by Mr. Smith of Deanston, 1837.” Referenced in Ginswick, Jules, Ed. Labor and the Poor in England and Wales: 1849-1851. Vol. 1. Routledge, 1983.
Baines, Thomas. Yorkshire, Past and Present. 1877.
City of Bradford Metropolitan District Council. “Bradford’s History.” Online at: http://www.bradford.gov.uk/leisure_and_culture/hobbies_and_interests/bradfords_history.htm
Clapp, B.W. An Environmental History of Britain. London, 1994.
Crosier, Pete. “The Victorian way of...death!” BBC. Online at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/bradford/sense_of_place/hidden_death_3.shtml
Defoe, Daniel. A tour through the whole island of Great Britain: Divided into circuits or journeys. Printed for S. Birt, T. Osborne, 1748. P. 119.
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1911. “Wool, worsted and woollen manufactures.” Online at http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wool,_worsted_and_woollen_manufactures
Garnett, Breedge. “Esholt: A suitable case for treatment!” BBC. Online at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/bradford/sense_of_place/hidden_esholt_1.shtml
Ginswick, Jules, Ed. Labor and the Poor in England and Wales: 1849-1851. Vol. 1. Routledge, 1983.
James, John. Continuation and Additions to the History of Bradford, and Its Parish. 1866.
James, John. History of the Worsted Manufacture in England: From the Earliest Times; with Introductory Notices of the Manufacture Among the Ancient Nations, and During the Middle Ages. First published in 1857. Reprint: Routledge, 1968.
James, John. The History and Topography of Bradford, (in the County of York). 1841. Quoted in: Baines, Thomas. Yorkshire, Past and Present. 1877. Vol 2.
Lawler, Eddie. “Bradford Beck” (song.) Online at: http://www.eddie-lawler.co.uk/
Leland, John. Itinerary. First published approx. 1846. This modernized translation is quoted in: Yorkshire, Past and Present , by Thomas Baines, 1877, page 261.
Royal Commission (UK). The Pollution of Rivers. 1867.
Shaw, Dave. “Saltaire: A successful industrial township.” Part of “The Industrial Revolution and its social consequences.” BBC. Online at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/work/england/bradford/article_1.shtml
Skempton, Sir Alec, Ed. The Biographical Dictionary of Civil Engineers in Great Britain and Ireland, Volume 1. Everyman Publishers plc in assoc. with English Heritage, London, 2001. ISBN 1-84159-047-9
Testimony of Angus Reach. Originally published in The Morning Chronicle (1849). Reprinted in Labour and the Poor in England and Wales, 1849-1851. J. Ginswick, Ed. Routledge, 1983. P. 175.
Tucker, Irwin St. John. A History of Imperialism. Published by Rand School of Social Science, New York, 1920.
Turner, J Horsfall. Ancient Bingley, or, Bingley, Its History and Scenery. Thomas Harrison and Sons, Bingley, Yorks, 1897.
Wood, Janet. “Hidden Water” (Song.) from Bradford: The Musical. Performed at the 2005 Bradford Festival.
Yorkshire History Pages, The. “West Yorkshire: Leeds and Bradford History.” Online at: http://www.northeastengland.talktalk.net/WestYorkshire.htm#BRADFORD
"Address before the National association of wool manufacturers, at the first annual meeting in Philadelphia, Sept. 6, 1865,” by John L Hayes, Secretary. Published by John Wilson and Sons, Cambridge, MA, 1865. Online at http://www.archive.org/stream/addressbeforenat00hayeiala/addressbeforenat00hayeiala_djvu.txt
“Inquisition Post Mortem, on the death of Henry De Laci the last Earl of Lincoln, 1311, 5th Edward II” reproduced in: Baines, Thomas. Yorkshire, Past and Present. 1877, Vol 2. P. 251
“Sanitary Report by Mr. Smith of Deanston, 1837.” Referenced in Ginswick, Jules, Ed. Labor and the Poor in England and Wales: 1849-1851. Vol. 1. Routledge, 1983.
Baines, Thomas. Yorkshire, Past and Present. 1877.
City of Bradford Metropolitan District Council. “Bradford’s History.” Online at: http://www.bradford.gov.uk/leisure_and_culture/hobbies_and_interests/bradfords_history.htm
Clapp, B.W. An Environmental History of Britain. London, 1994.
Crosier, Pete. “The Victorian way of...death!” BBC. Online at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/bradford/sense_of_place/hidden_death_3.shtml
Defoe, Daniel. A tour through the whole island of Great Britain: Divided into circuits or journeys. Printed for S. Birt, T. Osborne, 1748. P. 119.
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1911. “Wool, worsted and woollen manufactures.” Online at http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Wool,_worsted_and_woollen_manufactures
Garnett, Breedge. “Esholt: A suitable case for treatment!” BBC. Online at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/bradford/sense_of_place/hidden_esholt_1.shtml
Ginswick, Jules, Ed. Labor and the Poor in England and Wales: 1849-1851. Vol. 1. Routledge, 1983.
James, John. Continuation and Additions to the History of Bradford, and Its Parish. 1866.
James, John. History of the Worsted Manufacture in England: From the Earliest Times; with Introductory Notices of the Manufacture Among the Ancient Nations, and During the Middle Ages. First published in 1857. Reprint: Routledge, 1968.
James, John. The History and Topography of Bradford, (in the County of York). 1841. Quoted in: Baines, Thomas. Yorkshire, Past and Present. 1877. Vol 2.
Lawler, Eddie. “Bradford Beck” (song.) Online at: http://www.eddie-lawler.co.uk/
Leland, John. Itinerary. First published approx. 1846. This modernized translation is quoted in: Yorkshire, Past and Present , by Thomas Baines, 1877, page 261.
Royal Commission (UK). The Pollution of Rivers. 1867.
Shaw, Dave. “Saltaire: A successful industrial township.” Part of “The Industrial Revolution and its social consequences.” BBC. Online at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/work/england/bradford/article_1.shtml
Skempton, Sir Alec, Ed. The Biographical Dictionary of Civil Engineers in Great Britain and Ireland, Volume 1. Everyman Publishers plc in assoc. with English Heritage, London, 2001. ISBN 1-84159-047-9
Testimony of Angus Reach. Originally published in The Morning Chronicle (1849). Reprinted in Labour and the Poor in England and Wales, 1849-1851. J. Ginswick, Ed. Routledge, 1983. P. 175.
Tucker, Irwin St. John. A History of Imperialism. Published by Rand School of Social Science, New York, 1920.
Turner, J Horsfall. Ancient Bingley, or, Bingley, Its History and Scenery. Thomas Harrison and Sons, Bingley, Yorks, 1897.
Wood, Janet. “Hidden Water” (Song.) from Bradford: The Musical. Performed at the 2005 Bradford Festival.
Yorkshire History Pages, The. “West Yorkshire: Leeds and Bradford History.” Online at: http://www.northeastengland.talktalk.net/WestYorkshire.htm#BRADFORD
Article by Bill Wheeler & Josh Yaffa: "Urban Cowboys" on Good.is
"Urban Cowboys"
by William Wheeler & Joshua Yaffa
GOOD Magazine online, 4/16/09
http://www.good.is/?p=14862
by William Wheeler & Joshua Yaffa
GOOD Magazine online, 4/16/09
http://www.good.is/?p=14862
Into the Night: Night Photography Symposium at B&H
I was recently invited to speak at a day-long symposium on night photography at B&H Photo in New York, organized by Jill Waterman (author of the recent book Night and Low Light Photography). Also on the panel were some very accomplished photographers, whose work I've admired in the past, including Tom Paiva, Mark Jeremko, Lance Keimig, Helen Garber, and Daryl-Ann Saunders. I felt very privileged to be included.
http://www.bhphotovideo.com/find/eventDetails.jsp/id/342
Monday, March 9, 2009 | 10:30 AM - 4:30 PM
http://www.bhphotovideo.com/find/eventDetails.jsp/id/342
Monday, March 9, 2009 | 10:30 AM - 4:30 PM
Photo courtesy of Tom Dowling/TomBrooklyn
NY Post: Notes from the Underground
"Notes from the Underground," New York Post, 3/6/09
Story by Don Kaplan, photos by Steve Duncan
Had a great time working on this story with Don Kaplan, who writes a fascinating set of feature stories for the New York Post.
Article:
http://www.nypost.com/seven/03062009/entertainment/notes_from_the_underground_158320.htm
Photo Gallery:
http://www.nypost.com/photos/galleries/entertainment/pp_20090306_mole/photo01.htm
Story by Don Kaplan, photos by Steve Duncan
Had a great time working on this story with Don Kaplan, who writes a fascinating set of feature stories for the New York Post.
Article:
http://www.nypost.com/seven/03062009/entertainment/notes_from_the_underground_158320.htm
Photo Gallery:
http://www.nypost.com/photos/galleries/entertainment/pp_20090306_mole/photo01.htm
"Night Moves: Angles of View" @ Farmani Gallery, March 5-April 11 2009
Four of my photos will be included in "Night Moves," a group show of night photography curated by Jill Waterman and Daryl-Ann Saunders. This is a two-part show taking place in two galleries at once: "Night Moves: Angles of View" in the Farmani Gallery and "Night Moves: Exploring the Horizon" at the Safe-T-Gallery in the same building.
Opening: Thursday March 5th, 6-8pm
At the Farmani Gallery in DUMBO, 111 Front Street, Suite 212, Brooklyn.
March 5 - April 11, 2009
Hours: Wed-Sat 12-6pm
Opening: Thursday March 5th, 6-8pm
At the Farmani Gallery in DUMBO, 111 Front Street, Suite 212, Brooklyn.
March 5 - April 11, 2009
Hours: Wed-Sat 12-6pm
Photos at Life Cafe, Bushwick, Brooklyn, through March 2009
Some of my photos are on view at Life Cafe, an excellent bar/restaurant/cafe at 983 Flushing Avenue (at Central Avenue) in Bushwick, Brooklyn, near the Morgan Avenue L train stop. Good place for dinner or a weekend brunch, or just a quick beer. Come visit!
e-Oculus: Sewers Reveal Deep Topography Below
Review of my slideshow at the Center for Architecture on 1/27/09, by Lisa Delgado in the 2/24/09 issue of e-Oculus (publication of the AIA New York).
http://www.aiany.org/eOCULUS/newsletter/?p=2405
http://www.aiany.org/eOCULUS/newsletter/?p=2405
The Architect's Newspaper Blog: Underground Man
Review of slideshow at the Center For Architecture by Julia Galef:
http://blog.archpaper.com/wordpress/2009/02/12/nderground-man/
http://blog.archpaper.com/wordpress/2009/02/12/nderground-man/
Welt Der Wunder, February 2009 (photo credits)
Welt Der Wunder, February 2009 (German)
Article on underground NYC
Photo credits on five of the images used
Article on underground NYC
Photo credits on five of the images used
Catasterist.com, review of AIA slideshow
A nice review of my 1/27/09 slideshow for the AIA-NY at the Center for Architecture. Thanks Kirsten!
http://catasterist.com/2009/01/about-the-night-before-last/
http://catasterist.com/2009/01/about-the-night-before-last/
Slideshow at the Center for Architecture, January 27 2009
Thanks to all who came to my January 27th slideshow/lecture at the Center for Architecture, Building Over the Past: The Hidden Layers of the City.
The 100+ seats in the venue were completely filled, and I was flattered to see that some people were willing to stand through it as well. My deepest thanks to John Steigerwald for organizing the event; to Jesse Lazar and the Center for Architecture for hosting it; and to the AIA and all architects who came.
This was the first time I'd had the chance to present any of my photos from sewers and underground rivers in London, Rome, NYC, Newark, Buffalo, Hartford, and various cities in Northern England. I was very happy to have the chance to show these, although the slideshow went longer than I wanted, and I think that for future presentations this year I'll have to divide it into two talks: one focusing on urban waterways and the development of sewers and bridges, and the other on general urban underground layers.
I love sharing my work with an audience, and if you or your organization are interested in discussing the possibility of me doing a slideshow presentation in the upcoming year, please contact me.
The 100+ seats in the venue were completely filled, and I was flattered to see that some people were willing to stand through it as well. My deepest thanks to John Steigerwald for organizing the event; to Jesse Lazar and the Center for Architecture for hosting it; and to the AIA and all architects who came.
This was the first time I'd had the chance to present any of my photos from sewers and underground rivers in London, Rome, NYC, Newark, Buffalo, Hartford, and various cities in Northern England. I was very happy to have the chance to show these, although the slideshow went longer than I wanted, and I think that for future presentations this year I'll have to divide it into two talks: one focusing on urban waterways and the development of sewers and bridges, and the other on general urban underground layers.
I love sharing my work with an audience, and if you or your organization are interested in discussing the possibility of me doing a slideshow presentation in the upcoming year, please contact me.
New York Moon: Water of Manhattan
The New York Moon's January 2009 edition involved the myth and reality of waterways in Manhattan's past. Their interactive map includes a couple of my photos to illustrate sites.
http://www.nymoon.com/pubs/water/systems/
http://www.nymoon.com/pubs/water/systems/
Travel & Leisure: Coolest Underground Travel Spots
"Coolest Underground Travel Spots"
By Jennifer Bain
Travel & Leisure online, December 12, 2008
None of my photos are in the article; I am only quoted.
http://www.travelandleisure.com/articles/coolest-underground-travel-spots
Also carried on:
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27929685/
By Jennifer Bain
Travel & Leisure online, December 12, 2008
None of my photos are in the article; I am only quoted.
http://www.travelandleisure.com/articles/coolest-underground-travel-spots
Also carried on:
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27929685/
Urban Unconscious: Photography Auction Gala
Thank you to Miru Kim for including me in the November 1, 2008 auction/show, "Urban Unconscious."
http://nakedcityarts.com/urbanphoto.html
http://nakedcityarts.com/urbanphoto.html
One Week in a Hospital - Hazards of exploring underground rivers & sewers
Wading through an underground river last week, which still has the irregular, rocky bottom of a natural streambed, I slipped. As I went down I caught myself with my right hand. I wasn't wearing a glove, and as my hand plunged into the water in search of a hold I felt a shock. Yanking it out I felt something tear. Something-- metal, glass, or stone-- had pierced deep into my palm near the heel of my hand. The pain was incredible and I later learned it was because it had pierced the Carpel Tunnel, that bundle of nerves through the wrist, and had damaged the Ulnar nerve which controls the last two fingers.
The pain died down after a while but I still wanted to make sure it was OK. At the emergency room at the NYU Hospital Center, they took x-rays and said nothing was broken, but that even after cleaning there was some foreign material still embedded inside. "We'll suture it up loosely," said the resident, who I was pleased with at the time but who I now realize was a dangerous idiot. "Any dirt will be able to work its way out. It will be swollen and hurt tonight, but it should start getting better by tomorrow."
That was Monday. By Tuesday morning it was red and swollen and painful. By the time I got back to the hospital it was red and swollen to the elbow. By the time they officially checked me into the emergency room three hours later, it was red to the shoulder and I found that if I squeezed my grotesquely swollen wrist, pus would flow out of the wound on my palm.
"Stop that!" the ER nurse told me, but I felt like it was better out than in.
The pain was truly incredible, and it kept getting rapidly worse. By the time they got the hand surgeon down there, nasty streaks of infection were beginning to become visible on my chest as well.
They rushed me to surgery and cut open my hand and wrist to clean out the infection from its source. I was in-patient at the hospital for a week, on intense IV antibiotics. The surgeons removed the "foreign material" that had been in there, and upon culturing it found that the infection was three things:
Staph bacteria (occurs all over the place)
Enterobacter (bacteria often found in human feces)
Aeromonas Hydrophila (a hardy waterborne bacteria often found in leeches)
"It's exactly what we would have expected to find, knowing you were where you were when you got it," said one of the Infecious Diseases doctors, with a tone that I think showed both disapproval and a little awe. They don't often get walking laboratories of pathogens like this, I imagine.
Sadly I have no pictures of the early stages; I was too busy moaning from the pain, screaming for morphine, and praying for my arm to fall off and release me from the agony. But the picture at the top of this post shows it just after I got out of the hospital, after seven days of antibiotics and healing.
The pain died down after a while but I still wanted to make sure it was OK. At the emergency room at the NYU Hospital Center, they took x-rays and said nothing was broken, but that even after cleaning there was some foreign material still embedded inside. "We'll suture it up loosely," said the resident, who I was pleased with at the time but who I now realize was a dangerous idiot. "Any dirt will be able to work its way out. It will be swollen and hurt tonight, but it should start getting better by tomorrow."
That was Monday. By Tuesday morning it was red and swollen and painful. By the time I got back to the hospital it was red and swollen to the elbow. By the time they officially checked me into the emergency room three hours later, it was red to the shoulder and I found that if I squeezed my grotesquely swollen wrist, pus would flow out of the wound on my palm.
"Stop that!" the ER nurse told me, but I felt like it was better out than in.
The pain was truly incredible, and it kept getting rapidly worse. By the time they got the hand surgeon down there, nasty streaks of infection were beginning to become visible on my chest as well.
They rushed me to surgery and cut open my hand and wrist to clean out the infection from its source. I was in-patient at the hospital for a week, on intense IV antibiotics. The surgeons removed the "foreign material" that had been in there, and upon culturing it found that the infection was three things:
Staph bacteria (occurs all over the place)
Enterobacter (bacteria often found in human feces)
Aeromonas Hydrophila (a hardy waterborne bacteria often found in leeches)
"It's exactly what we would have expected to find, knowing you were where you were when you got it," said one of the Infecious Diseases doctors, with a tone that I think showed both disapproval and a little awe. They don't often get walking laboratories of pathogens like this, I imagine.
Sadly I have no pictures of the early stages; I was too busy moaning from the pain, screaming for morphine, and praying for my arm to fall off and release me from the agony. But the picture at the top of this post shows it just after I got out of the hospital, after seven days of antibiotics and healing.
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